An analysis for Lewis'relection following the death of his wife Assignment

An analysis for Lewis'relection following the death of his wife - Assignment Example Events involving loss or separation may occur throughout our lives (Lendrum & Syme 2004) but death is a particular form of loss that is very different from the loss of innocence or control, such as in sexual abuse or rape; or loss of status and income such as in retrenchment or unemployment. It is also vastly different from the loss of dreams or ambition such as in the birth of a disabled child. Death is not only devastating, it is final, (Lendrum & Syme 2004) and any counselling that occurs must take into consideration that bereaved persons understand this in different ways. Different individuals have varying concepts on what death brings, not only to them as the bereaved, but to the person who has died (Walton 1996). Not everyone believes in the hereafter, and that souls are reunited after death. Not all believers share the same concepts about death and resurrection (Duffey 2007). There are many variations on both philosophies. C S Lewis is well known for his Christian outlook, with an understanding that eternal life lies ahead for all souls, but a variety of these concepts exist in the community (Blank 2009). In addition, the shock of bereavement can give any person a new insight into their long-held beliefs. So allowances must be made; and jumping to conclusions, or making presumptions, must be avoided if possible (Kubler-Ross & Kessler 2007) . Just as C S Lewis had to redress his faith when his beloved wife died (Lewis 2001), many of those recently bereaved experience a shift in attitude - no matter how long they were held - that comes through shock and disbelief. Initial distress can often register as physical pain (Malkinson 2007). Lewis suffered from osteoporosis, so he was no stranger to pain, but the loss of ‘H’ struck him like an ache from which there was no relief (Lewis 2001). Reaction to the death of someone

Translation and Technology Essay Example for Free

Translation and Technology Essay Contents List of Figures, Tables and Boxes Series Editors’ Preface Acknowledgements List of Abbreviations Introduction 1 Definition of Terms Machine translation Human-aided machine translation Machine-aided human translation Human translation The localization industry Conclusion 2 Translation Studies and Translation Technology Translation theory Academic and professional groups in translation Linguistic theories in machine translation systems Translation studies The translation process Conclusion 3 Machine. Translation Systems Major historical developments Architectures Hybrid and interactive  machine translation systems Online machine translation systems Commercial machine translation systems Reasons for using machine translation systems Conclusion vii ix xii xiv xvi 1 6 8 11 13 14 19 20 22 22 26 30 36 43 55 57 58 66 84 85 87 89 91 viii Contents. 4 Computer-Aided Translation Tools and Resources Workbenches Translation support tools and resources Localization tools Commercial computer-aided translation tools Standards for data interchange Conclusion 5 Evaluating Translation Tools Machine translation systems Computer-aided translation tools Stakeholders Evaluation methods General frameworks for evaluating translation tools Conclusion 6 Recent Developments and Future Directions Machine translation systems Computer-aided translation tools Translation systems with speech technology. Translation systems for minority languages Translation on the web Machine translation systems and the semantic web The localization industry Conclusion 7 Translation Types Revisited Relationships between topics and translation types Machine translation systems Computer-aided translation tools Conclusion Appendices References Index 93 93 106 113 117 119 128 129 129 131 133 135 139 151 152 152 156 157 162 164 166 170 171 172 173 191 193 195 197 204 218 List of Figures, Tables and Boxes Figures 1. 1 1. 2 1. 3 1. 4 1. 5 2. 1 2. 2 2. 3 2. 4 2. 5 2. 6 2. 7 2. 8 2. 9 2. 10 2. 11 2. 12 2. 13 3. 1 3. 2 3. 3 3. 4 3. 5 3. 6 3. 7 3. 8 3. 9. Classification of translation types Machine translation model Machine translation system based on usage Human-aided machine translation model Machine-aided human translation model Chronology of translation theories Translation process model Example of sentence representations Holmes’ schema of translation studies. A schema of  applied translation studies A model of the translation process including pre- and post-editing tasks Example of an English SL text and its pre-edited version Unedited and post-edited Spanish machine translation output Example of natural and controlled languages Example of original English text and its AECMA simplified English version Example of natural English, simplified English and simplified Arabic texts Example of an English controlled language text and its translations Illustration of the translation process using a machine translation system. Chronology of machine translation development Example of structural representations Machine translation architectures Direct translation model Interlingua model Interlingua multilingual machine translation system model Transfer model Transfer using tree-to-tree parsing Transfer multilingual machine translation system model ix 7 9 10 12 13 23 29 31 37 42 43 44 46 48 50 51 53 54 58 68 68 70 72 72 74 75 76 x List of Figures, Tables and Boxes 3. 10 3. 11 3. 12 3. 13 4. 1 4. 2 4. 3 4. 4 4. 5 4. 6 4. 7 4. 8 4. 9 4. 10 4. 11 4. 12 4. 13 4. 14 4. 15 4. 16 4. 17 4. 18 4. 19 4. 20 4. 21 4. 22 5. 1 5. 2 5. 3 5. 4 5. 5 6. 1 6. 2. Statistical-based model Probabilities workflow in the statistical-based approach Example-based model Translations by online machine translation systems Example of HTML code in a web page Example of the web page without HTML code Example of a translation workflow using a translation memory system Example of an English source text Pre-translation 1 Database model in translation memory systems Reference model in translation memory systems. Flowchart to illustrate how to build a parallel corpus Example of a text header in a corpus Example of part-of-speech tagging Example of a concordance for the word ‘round’ Types of tool used in a localization project Example of the translation process using a machine translation system, a translation database and a terminology database Example of TMX  data-sharing Example of a header in TMX. Example of a body in TMX Example of a header in TBX Example of a body in TBX Example of XLIFF in the localization process Example of a header in XLIFF Example of a body in XLIFF Example of an alternate translation element in XLIFF Example of a glass-box evaluation Example of a black-box evaluation Example of an evaluation process Standardization projects for evaluating machine translation systems EAGLES general evaluation framework Future-use model of translation technology. Speech technology in translation 78 80 81 87 99 99 102 102 103 103 104 109 110 111 112 114 117 120 121 122 124 125 126 127 127 127 138 139 141 142 145 154 158 Tables 1. 1 3. 1 An example of a table for describing translation types Example of a word entry in KAMI 8 67 List of Figures, Tables and Boxes xi 3. 2 3. 3 3. 4 4. 1 4. 2 4. 3 4. 4 4. 5 4. 6 4. 7 4. 8 7. 1 7. 2 7. 3 7. 4 7. 5 7. 6 7. 7 7. 8 7. 9 7. 10 7. 11 7. 12 7. 13 7. 14 7. 15 7. 16 7. 17 7. 18 7. 19 7. 20. Imitation in the example-based approach Semantic similarity in the example-based approach Classification of commercial machine translation systems Example of perfect matching Examples of fuzzy matching Higher and lower threshold percentages for fuzzy matching Examples of matching suggestions for ‘bow’ Example of segments Example of translation units Example of English-French translation units from a database. Classification of commercial computer-aided translation tools Degree of automation Human intervention Integrated tools Application of theory Application of theory in machine translation systems Source-language texts Target-language texts Stages of the translation process Types of text Language dependency Types of source language Data interchange standards in translation Translation groups. and data interchange standards Levels of evaluation Methods of evaluation Features in a machine translation system Language coverage in machine translation systems Texts and computer-aided translation tools Language dependency in computer-aided translation tools Number of languages in computer-aided translation tools 82 82 88 95 96 97 98 100 101 102 118 174 175 175 176 177 178 180 181 182 185 186 187 188 189 190 191 193 194 194 195 Boxes 1. 1 5. 1 A translator at work FEMTI evaluation framework 14 147 Series Editors’ Preface Recent years have witnessed momentous changes in the study of Modern Languages, globally as well as nationally. On the one hand, the rapid growth of English as a universal lingua franca has rendered the command of other languages a less compelling commodity. On the other hand, the demand for intercultural mediators including translators and interpreters has grown as a result of many recent social, political and economic developments; these include legislative changes, the emergence of supranational organisations, the ease of travel, telecommunications, commercial pressures raising awareness of local needs, migration and employment mobility, and a heightened awareness of linguistic and human rights. Today, linguistically oriented students wishing to pursue a career in which they are able to further their interest in languages and cultures would be more inclined to choose vocationally relevant courses in which translation and interpreting play an important part rather than traditional Modern Language degrees. Thus the possibilities for professional work in translation and interpreting have been extended, particularly as a result of developments in technology, whether as facilitating the translation process or as a means of dissemination and broadening access to communications in a range of media. The role of translation is, for example, becoming increasingly important in the context of modern media such as television and cinema, whether for documentary or entertainment purposes. And the technological possibilities for providing interpreting services, whether to the police officer on the beat or to the businessperson on a different continent, have extended the previously physically confined nature of mediating the spoken word. Not only do these new vistas open up opportunities for the professional linguist, they also point to expanding areas of research in Translation and Interpreting Studies. Practice and theory are of mutual benefit, especially in the case of a relatively young discipline such as Translation Studies. As a result, the first aim of this series, written primarily for the MA and advanced undergraduate student, is to highlight contemporary issues and concerns in order to provide informed, theoretically based, accounts of developments in translation and interpretation. The second aim is to provide ready access for students interested in the study and pursuit of Modern Languages to xii Series Editors’ Preface xiii vocational issues which are of relevance to the contemporary world of translating and interpreting. The final aim is to offer informed updates to practising professionals on recent developments in the field impacting on their discipline. Linguistic, Culture and Translation Studies University of Surrey Guildford UK GUNILLA ANDERMAN MARGARET ROGERS Acknowledgements I am indebted to three individuals for their contributions. This book would have taken more time to complete if it had not been for Chooi Tsien Yeo who researched background information for me. Words cannot express my gratitude to Stephen Moore, in between translation deadlines, for putting his experiences as a professional translator into writing. I am extremely indebted to Paul Marriott for his comments and suggestions, particularly on helping to visualize a new way to depict the multidimensional classification of translation types in Chapter 7. I would like to acknowledge especially the Duke University Libraries and Institute of Statistics and Decision Science at Duke University in providing me with the environment and research facilities where most of this book was written. Also my thanks to the National University of Singapore Libraries, George Edward Library at the University of Surrey, and the Department of Statistics and Actuarial Science at the University of Waterloo for their help. I would also like to acknowledge the following authors, publishers and organizations for allowing the use of copyright material in this book: John Hutchins, Harold Somers and Elsevier (Academic Press Ltd) for the classification of translation types in Chapter 1; Eugene Nida and the Linguistic Society of America for the translation process in Chapter 2; John Smart and Smart Communications, Inc. for the controlled and simplified English samples in Chapter 2; Francis Bond and Takefumi Yamazaki for the KAMI Malay–English dictionary entry in Chapter 3; Paolo Dongilli and Johann Gamper for the building of a parallel corpus in Chapter 4; Tony Jewtushenko and Peter Reynolds of OASIS for XLIFF in Chapter 4; Enrique de Argaez at Internet World Stats for the statistical figure on the Internet population in Chapter 6; Michael Carl, Reinhard Schaler, Andy Way, Springer Science and Business Media, and Kluwer Academic Publishers for the model of the future use of translation technology in Chapter 6. To Antonio Ribeiro, Tessadit Lagab, Margaret Rogers and Chooi Tsien Yeo, my most sincere thanks for translating from English into Portuguese, French, German and Chinese respectively. I am solely responsible for any translation errors that occurred. A special thank you goes to Elsie Lee, Shaun Yeo, Angeliki Petrits, Mirko Plitt and Ken Seng Tan for answering some of my queries. xiv Acknowledgements xv  To Caroline, Elizabeth, Gillian and Lyndsay, thank you for helping out with keying in corrections on the earlier drafts. Lastly, to my ‘sifu’ and friend Peter Newmark, a big thank-you for all the translation discussions we had during our coffee–biscuit sessions years ago. If it had not been for the series editors, Gunilla Anderman and Margaret Rogers, this book would not have been written. I am forever grateful to both of them for their feedback and comments. Thanks to Jill Lake of Palgrave Macmillan for her patience and understanding due to my ‘country-hopping’ from Southeast Asia to North America during the writing of this book. Waterloo, Canada CHIEW KIN QUAH List of Abbreviations. ACRoTERMITE AECMA AIA ALPAC ALPS ALT-J/C ALT-J/E ALT-J/M AMTA ASCC ASD ATA BASIC BLEU BSO CAT CAT2 CESTA CFE CIA CICC CRATER CTE CULT DARPA DBMT DIPLOMAT DLT DTS EAGLES EARS EDIG Terminology of Telecommunications European Association of Aerospace Industries Aerospace Industries Association of America Automatic Language Processing Advisory Committee Automatic Language Processing System Automatic Language Translator Japanese to Chinese Automatic Language. Translator Japanese to English Automatic Language Translator Japanese to Malay Association of Machine Translation in the Americas Automatic Spelling Checker Checker AeroSpace and Defence American Translators Association British American Scientific International, Commercial Bilingual Evaluation Understudy Buro voor Systeemontwikkeling Computer-Aided Translation Constructors, Atoms and Translators Campagne d’Evaluation de Systemes de Traduction Automatique Caterpillar Fundamental English Central Intelligence Agency Center of International Cooperation for Computerization Corpus Resources and Terminology Extraction Caterpillar. Technical English Chinese University Language Translator Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency Dialogue-based Machine Translation Distributed Intelligent Processing of Language for Operational Machine Aided Translation Distributed Language Translation Descriptive Translation Studies Expert Advisory Group on Language Engineering Standards Effective, Affordable Reusable Speech-to-Text European Defence Industries Group xvi List of Abbreviations xvii. ELDA ELRA ENGSPAN ENIAC EURODICAUTUM EUROSPACE EUROTRA EVALDA EWG FAHQT/FAHQMT FEMTI GENETER GETA HAMT HICATS HT HTML IAMT IATE INTERSECT ISI ISLE ISO JEIDA JEITA JICST-E KAMI KANT KGB LDC LISA LMT LTC LTRAC MAHT MANTRA MARTIF Evaluations and Language resources Distribution Agency European Language Resources Association English Spanish Machine Translation System Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer European. Terminology Database Aerospace  and Defence Industries Association of Europe European Translation Infrastructure d’EVALuation a ELDA Evaluation Working Group Fully Automatic High Quality (Machine) Translation A Framework for the Evaluation of Machine Translation in ISLE Generic Model for Terminology Groupe d’Etude pour la Traduction Automatique Human-Aided/Assisted Machine Translation Hitachi Computer Aided Translation System Human Translation HyperText Markup Language International Association of Machine Translation Inter-Agency Terminology Exchange International Sample of English Contrastive. Texts International Statistical Institute International Standards for Language Engineering International Organization for Standardization Japan Electronic Industry Development Association Japan Electronics and Information Technology Association Japan Information Center of Science and Technology Kamus Melayu-Inggeris (Malay-English Dictionary) Knowledge-based Accurate Translation Komitet Gosudarstvennoi Bezopasnosti Linguistic Data Consortium Localisation Industry and Standards Association Logic-based Machine Translation Language Technology Centre Language Translation Resources Automatic Console Machine-Aided/Assisted Human Translation Machine Assisted Translation Machine Readable Terminology Interchange Format xviii List of Abbreviations. MASTOR MAT METAL METU MLIR MT NAATI NIST OASIS OCP OCR OLIF OS OSCAR PaTrans PAHO PDA PESA RDF RFC SALT SGML SPANAM SUSY SYSTRAN TAP TAUM TBX TEMAA TGT-1 THETOS TMF TMX TOLL TONGUES TS TTS Multilingual Automatic Speech-to-Speech Translator Machine-Aided/Assisted Translation Mechanical Translation and Analysis of Language Middle East Technical University MultiLingual Information Retrieval Machine. Translation National Accreditation Authority for Translators and Interpreters Ltd. National Institute of Standards and Technology Organization for the Advancement of Structured Information Standards Oxford Concordance Programme Optical Character Recognition Open Lexicon Interchange Format Operating System Open Standards for Container/Content Allowing Re-use Patent  Translation Pan-American Health Organization Personal Digital Assistant Portuguese-English Sentence Alignment Resource Description Framework Request for Comments Standards-based Access to Lexicographical Terminological Multilingual Resources Standard Generalised Markup. Language Spanish American Machine Translation System Saarbrucker UbersetzungsSYstem System Translation Think-Aloud Protocols Traduction automatique a l’Universite de Montreal TermBase eXchange Testbed Study of Evaluation Methodologies: Authoring Aids Text-into-Gesture Translator Text into Sign Language Automatic Translator for Polish Terminological Markup Framework Translation Memory eXchange Thai On-Line Library Act II Audio Voice Translation Guide Systems Translation Studies Theoretical Translation Studies List of Abbreviations xix WebDIPLOMAT WebOnt WWW W3C XLIFF XLT XML Web Distributed Intelligent Processing of Language for Operational Machine Aided Translation Web Ontology World Wide Web WWW Consortium XML Localisation Interchange File Format XML Representation of Lexicons and Terminologies Extensible or Extensive Markup Language This page intentionally left blank Introduction For over half a century, the demand for a variety of translations by different groups of end-users has enabled many types of translation tools to be developed. This is reflected in the systems that will be discussed in this book, ranging from machine translation systems, computer-aided translation tools and translation resources. The majority of books and articles on translation technology focusing on the development of these systems and tools have been written from the point of view of researchers and developers. More recent publications written with translators in mind have focused on the use of particular tools. This book is intended as an introduction to translation technology for students of translation. It can also be useful to professional translators and those interested in knowing about translation technology. A different approach is taken in that descriptions of particular tools are not provided, and the development of different machine translation and computer-aided translation tools and their uses are discussed. Programming details and mathematical equations are not considered, except in the discussion of the statistical approach to machine translation where minimal essential formulae are included. Descriptions are given to allow readers to further investigate specific approaches or issues that might interest them, using references cited throughout the book. It is also important to note that no particular approach or design is deemed to be better than any other. Each and every one has their strengths and weaknesses. In many cases, readers will find that examples of systems and tools are given but this does not suggest that they are the best; they are simply examples to illustrate the points made. 1 2 Translation and Technology While researching this book, I discovered that the majority of publications from the literature on translation technology are about the development of machine translation systems, primarily involving experimental systems developed or being developed at a number of universities and large commercial corporations across the globe. The book will show that many of these systems never achieved their commercial potential and remained as experimental tools, while some others served as tools for other natural-language processing applications. By contrast, not much literature seems to be available on computeraided tools such as translation memory systems. As we shall see in this book, most computer-aided translation tools are developed by commercial companies and, as a result, progress reports on these tools are rarely published in the public domain. Furthermore, to cater to different needs and demands, a tool like a translation memory system comes in many versions from the most basic to the most advanced. Insights into the use of these tools can be found in translator magazines and occasionally also posted on the World Wide Web (WWW). The evaluation of translation tools falls into a field that is wellresearched. Again we will see that most of the literature focuses on the evaluation of machine translation systems. Furthermore, the extensive use of translation tools and translation processes involved in the localization industry tend to be discussed separately, giving the impression that they are not related to translation. These two areas are, however, directly relevant to translation technology. Hence they are also included in this book. Essentially, the book contains what is felt should be included in order to provide an overview of translation technology. In order to keep the book at the given length, the topics have been carefully selected with some described in greater detail than others. In some chapters, an abbreviated historical background has been deemed necessary in order to provide a better understanding of the topics discussed, especially in the description of the development of machine translation systems and their evaluation. However, in all cases, references have been provided which readers may choose to pursue at a later time. Suggestions for further reading are provided at the end of every chapter (Chapters 1 to 6). The first chapter discusses the definitions of terms referring to the use of computers in translation activities. Some of the terms can be confusing to anyone who is unfamiliar with translation tools. In some cases, the same translation tools are given different names depending on what they are used for; in other cases, a tool may be differently classified depending on the perspective of those who have developed that tool. Introduction 3 The aim in this chapter is therefore to clarify these terminological and related matters. An alternative perspective to the four basic translation types – fully automated high-quality machine translation, human-aided machine translation, machine-aided human translation, and human translation – first proposed by Hutchins and Somers (1992) is introduced to reflect current developments in translation technology. This will be explored in more detail in the final chapter where the four translation types are reviewed in relation to topics described in the book. The second chapter discusses technology within the larger framework of Translation Studies as a discipline, focusing on the relationship between the engineering of translation technology, on the one hand, and Translation Studies including translation theory, on the other hand. The relationship between academic and professional groups involved in translation is also examined. This in turn leads to a discussion of the involvement of a particular approach in linguistic theories – known as ‘formalisms’ in natural-language processing – especially in the design of machine translation systems. A different perspective on the translation process involving pre- and post-editing tasks using a special variety of language called ‘controlled language’ is also presented. This translation process is described using the translation model proposed by Jakobson (1959/2000), a translation model that differs significantly from the one proposed by Nida (1969). The third chapter gives detailed descriptions of different machine translation system designs also known as ‘architectures’. The development of machine translation over several decades, its capabilities and the different types of machine translation systems, past and present, are also included. Both experimental and commercial systems are discussed, although the focus is on the experimental systems. Even though machine translation has been well-documented elsewhere, a discussion is deemed to be important for this book. It is felt that modern-day professional translators should be informed about machine translation systems because there is every reason to believe, as we shall discover in Chapter 6, that future trends in translation technology are moving towards integrated systems where at least one translation tool is combined with another, as is already the case in the integration of machine translation with translation memory. The fourth chapter describes the architectures and uses of several computer-aided translation tools, such as translation memory systems, as well as resources such as parallel corpora. Unlike machine translation systems, which are largely developed by universities, most computeraided translation tools are developed by commercial companies. Thus, 4 Translation and Technology information about such tools is harder to obtain. This chapter will also show that computer-aided translation tools are becoming more advanced and using different operating systems, and so ‘standards for data interchange’ have been created. Three different standards are described. Currently available commercial translation tools are also discussed. In addition, this chapter presents an overview of other commercially available tools such as those used in the localization industry. The fifth chapter touches on the evaluation of translation technology. The discussion focuses on different groups of stakeholders from research sponsors to end-users. Also included in the discussion are the different methods of evaluation: human, machine, and a combination of human and machine as evaluator. The choice of method used depends on who the evaluation is for and its purpose. It also depends on whether an entire tool or only some components are evaluated. Also described in this chapter is the general framework of evaluation offered by various research groups in the USA and Europe. The literature on evaluation concentrates on the evaluation of machine translation systems either during the developmental stage or after the process of development is completed. Less information is available on the evaluation of computeraided translation tools. What is available is found mainly in translation journals, magazines and newsletters. The sixth chapter presents some recent developments and shows the direction in which translation technology is heading, in particular regarding the future of machine translation systems that are now incorporating speech technology features. The integration of speech technology and traditional machine translation systems allows translation not only between texts or between stretches of speech, but also between text and speech. This integration is proving to be useful in many specific situations around the globe especially in international relations and trade. This chapter also looks at research projects in countries that are involved in the development of translation tools for minority languages and discusses the problems encountered in developing machine translation systems for languages that are less well-known and not widely spoken. Another form of technology called the ‘Semantic Web’ that has the potential to improve the performance of certain machine translation systems is also described. Included in this chapter, too, are issues such as linguistic dominance and translation demands on the WWW that are already shaping parts of the translation industry. The book concludes by presenting an expanded version of the four basic classifications of translation types as suggested by Hutchins and Somers (1992) and introduced in Chapter 1. It is concluded that the Introduction 5 one-dimensional linear continuum originally proposed is no longer able to accurately reflect current developments in translation technology. Translation tools today come in different versions and types depending on the purposes for which they are built. Some are multifunctional while others remain monofunctional. An alternative way must therefore be found to depict the complexities and multidimensional relationships between the four translation types and the topics discussed in this book. It is not possible to put every single subject discussed here into one diagram or figure, and so, in order to gain a better understanding of how the issues are related to one another, they are divided into groups. Topics or issues in each group have a common theme that links them together, and are presented in a series of tables. However, it is important to bear in mind that not all topics can be presented neatly and easily even in this way. This clearly shows the complexity and multidimensionality of translation activities in the modern technological world. At the end of the book, several Appendices provide information on the various Internet sites for many different translation tools and translation support tools such as monolingual, bilingual, trilingual and multilingual dictionaries, glossaries, thesauri and encyclopaedia. Only a selected few are listed here, and as a result the lists are not exhaustive. It is also important to note that some Internet sites may not be permanent; at the time of the writing, every effort has been made to ensure that all sites are accessible. 1 Definition of Terms In translation technology, terms commonly used to describe translation tools are as follows: †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ machine translation (MT); machine-aided/assisted human translation (MAHT); human-aided/assisted machine translation (HAMT); computer-aided/assisted translation (CAT); machine-aided/assisted translation (MAT); fully automatic high-quality (machine) translation (FAHQT/FAHQMT). Distinctions between some of these terms are not always clear. For example, computer-aided translation (CAT) is often the term used in Translation Studies (TS) and the localization industry (see the second part of this chapter), while the software community which develops this type of tool prefers to call it ‘machine-aided translation’ (MAT). As the more familiar term among professional translators and in the field of Translation Studies, ‘computer-aided translation’ is used throughout the book to represent both computer-aided translation and machine-aided translation tools, and the term ‘aided’ is chosen instead of ‘assisted’, as also in ‘human-aided machine translation’ and ‘machine-aided human translation’. Figure 1. 1 distinguishes four types of translation relating human and machine involvement in a classification along a linear continuum introduced by Hutchins and Somers (1992: 148). This classification, now more than a decade old, will become harder to sustain as more tools become multifunctional, as we shall see in Chapters 3, 4 and 6. Nevertheless, the concept in Figure 1. 1 remains useful as a point of reference for classifying translation in relation to technology. 6 Definition of Terms 7 MT CAT Machine Fully automated high quality (machine) translation (FAHQT/ FAHQMT) Human-aided machine translation (HAMT) Machine-aided human translation (MAHT) Human Human translation (HT) MT = machine translation; CAT = computer-aided translation Figure 1. 1 Source: Classification of translation types Hutchins and Somers (1992): 148. The initial goal of machine translation was to build a fully automatic high-quality machine translation that did not require any human intervention. At a 1952 conference, however, Bar-Hillel reported that building a fully automatic translation system was unrealistic and years later still remained convinced that a fully automatic high-quality machine translation system was essentially unattainable (Bar-Hillel 1960/2003: 45). Instead, what has emerged in its place is machine translation, placed between FAHQT and HAMT on the continuum of Figure 1. 1. The main aim of machine translation is still to generate translation automatically, but it is no longer required that the output quality is high, rather that it is fit-for-purpose (see Chapters 2 and 3). As for human-aided machine translation and machine-aided human translation, the boundary between these two areas is especially unclear.

An Analysis of the Culture of an Organisation

An Analysis of the Culture of an Organisation Organisational culture is a place or community and sometimes is called as workplace environment on which the growth of the employees or the people is relied that is important for the growth of the company itself. The culture should be encouraging and based on the organizational policies, values and set of business ethics as well so that the people working within the organizational working environment can find things to keep in ethical standards and also according to the way the business organization wants to keep. This will benefit both the business organization as well as the people working for the organization as well. This report is based on the title of An analysis of the culture of an organisation and for accomplishing the key objectives of this assignment, we are to use the case of Nestle. Nestle is a big global business organization and it has been serving the world food industry for the last 150 years of successful business operations as cited by (About us, 2016). The cultur e of Nestle is a big matter of discussion when the company is much health and safety as well as environment concern providing best food products to the people in more than 189 countries of the world. It employs more than 3, 35, 000 employees having operated more than 2, 000 brands of it in the international food market as highlighted by (At a glance, 2016). Nestle has a good culture practicing growth for its employees and improving their abilities and skills continuously within the organizational community through performance improvement and reward systems as well. The culture of Nestle is based on better performance that the employees are always encouraged to be better than the past as noted by (Performance culture, 2016). Organization and the culture of the organization is significant as evaluated by the employees or the people who work there. It is significant in the sense that if the organization cannot ensure and provide the culture or the minimum working environment to the employees where the employees will have the growth opportunities. If they cant get the opportunity to Put into their potentials in the company and the opportunity to prove themselves then, employees will not find interest for working there anymore. This report will cover the culture of Nestle and how it assists its employee to keep themselves align with its mission and objectives while giving them the opportunities and benefits for working better and nurturing the culture of it. In order to discuss the facts related to the evolution of the culture of Nestle, we will demonstrate how different theoretical framework or models can be applied to the case of nestle. Also, an analysis will take place on using and evaluating a particula r and relevant cultural theoretical model to the selected organization along with some evaluative recommendations for the company to better design the culture of it. This report will be prepared basing on the fact of equality of rights for both male and female employees and balancing gender in the workplace environment. Nestle is trying to enhance some systematic changes and trying to bring some improvements in the workplace environment in order to enhance as well as develop the culture of the organization throughout all of the offices of Nestle. Also, maintaining standards in all of the departments and offices throughout the word is another goal of Nestle through focusing on some key changes such as eliminating child labor, ensuring better safety in the workplace, improving supply chain, using environment friendly production and distribution system and many more issues as cited by (Creating Shared Value, 2016). So, we are to focus on the issue of balancing gender or, enhancing balance in gender in Nestle as this is one of the issues that is presently confronted and tried to be settled at Nestle. Culture of a business organization or company needs to be understood and evaluated by the managers or strategists of the particular business organization. The analysis on the culture of a particular business organization by its key planners or managerial personnel will provide the opportunity to enhance the productivity of the employees as well as the people working in the company through developing their skill within the standardize system of the culture set by the managers (Al Mehairi Zakaria, 2014). But, evaluating as well as understanding the workplace environmental characteristics or the elements of the culture to know about the nature of the culture of a particular organization needs to use some models or theories to analyze the key elements of the work environment or the culture of the company. Here, we are to discuss about two models of culture related to analyzing the culture of a business organization so that the issue that is currently facing by Nestle can be evaluated an d analyzed to oversee how the company is confronting and overcoming the challenges or the issue. Among various models of organizational culture, we are to discuss here on the Hofstedes model of culture and the Handys model of culture. In the following paragraphs these two model of organizational culture are to be discussed brief. Hofstedes model of culture Geert Hofstede is a psychologist who had provided with a model showing the variables or dimensions that a society or a culture of the society or culture of any organization as well as company might possess (Geert Hofstede, 2016). The model of cultural dimensions was provided by Geert Hofstede in the year of 1970 which was invented basing on a research project by Geert Hofstede (Hofstede, 2009). The research project was conducted on fifty different countries of the world involving the workers or people working in the IBM and he differentiated one culture from another as cited by (Research Geert Hofstede, 2016). Through conducting this research project, Geert Hofstede provided four dimensions and later on, he added two more dimensions of culture that are now used by the organizational researchers to understand differences among the culture of each country from other business organizations. Strategists or managerial personnel use this model of culture to analyze various differences in the culture of a particular business organization in order to settle the issues faced by the company to overcome cultural problems. Moreover, the model of cultural dimension by Hofstede is used for understanding cultural differences between or among societies or cultures of business organizations as well. Geert Hofstede suggested six dimensions of organizational or societal culture. According to (Hofstede, Pedersen, Hofstede, 2012), these six cultural dimensions of culture can place value within the organization if the variables or dimensions can be properly balanced and managed by the mangers. The six cultural dimensions by Hofstede are described below in brief. Power distance: Power distance index is a measurement of power distribution that shows how the power within a society or business organization or company is distributed to the people of the particular institution or company. This index consists two sides from which one is high power distance and another is low power distance. The two sides reflect two kinds of nature of a culture of a business organization along with the nature of the authority and management possessed by the managers of a particular business organization. The business organization which has people with high in power distance that means that people have more power than the people living without zero or very low power than the higher class people in the society or in the organization. The organization having high in power distance index follows an authoritarian management philosophy and the employees working there do not have the rights such as flexibility of work, right of making decisions or giving opinions etc. But , low power distance index of an organization has a balance in the power that people have in the working environment or company. Managers follow democratic leadership and managerial style involving others in making key organizational decisions as well as cited by (Organisational Culture Geert Hofstede, 2016). Individualistic vs collectivistic: Business organizations may also have the nature of individualism or collectivism in its organizational culture or working environment. Individualistic business organizational culture doesnt inspire people to work for the shared goals as prescribed by the business organization. But, collectivist organizational culture of a business organization promotes common values and goals as well of the organization to be achieved through group or team efforts by the people working within the organization. This dimension shows whether a business organization has a culture of community sharing common objectives or a culture having interest for achieving personal rather than organizational goals. High and low uncertainty avoidance: Companies that are high in the uncertainty avoidance have a culture involving systems, regulations, guidelines to follow without coping with the changes due to the change of the business environment, change in the economy or change in the other variables that might influence the decisions taken by the company. These organizations do not change over time and believe that changes might cause problems whether, the organizations in low uncertainty avoidance index update their systems and implement improvements in the strategies or plans as well to innovate and to increase the feasibility and validity of the organizational policies. Masculinity and femininity: This index shows the attitude that a culture of a business organization possess. The high in the index shows that the organization is such ambitious, competitive and there is more difference in gender beyond equality between male and female employees. The low index value shows femininity attitudes within the culture of an organization of high in gender balance and focusing on relationship building with others in the organization to provide greater value for the organization together. Short term and long term orientation: Organization may have an orientation of short term which involves the organization to rely upon traditional systems followed by the company and also having the view that future will be handled in future without having any planning at present. Taking any action in the business is not made basing on future. On the other hand, having the long term orientation companies implement long term plans taking the value of time and analyzing the past, they take actions at present to improve the organizational situation in the long term. Indulgence versus restraint: Organization focusing more on indulgence or having high score in the index of indulgence versus restraint has a culture of rewarding employees toward a happier personal as well as work life. But, low in the index represents the culture of a business organization to involve rigid and structured organizational framework with no optimism of wellbeing of the employees. Handys model of culture Charles Handy is an Irish Philosopher who is a specialist of culture of business organization (Charles Handy, 2009). Charles Handy provided his model of organizational culture which involves four types of culture that the business organization may follow. This model of culture identifying the four types of culture of a business organization will make someone understand why employee feel comfortable working in a particular business organization.   According to Charles Handy, the four types or classes of culture of the business organization are described in brief in the following paragraphs as highlighted by (CRAINER, 2010). The power culture: The business organization that involves the power culture follows the leadership style as well as the management style of autocracy. Business organization having such power culture centralizes all the power of the organization to some of the person in the high level of the organizational hierarchy or structure. Key decisions or any types of decisions taken within the organization are done by them without giving any right of opinion giving to the employees as cited by (Charles Handy Model of Organization Culture, 2016). So, Employees do not enjoy working in such type of organization and also this type of culture ensures nothing equal on any issue for the betterment of the people working under the autocratic managers. Task culture: The business organizations or companies having or following the culture of accomplishing tasks through making team efforts are more objectives achieving oriented. According to (Bailey, 2007), the task culture emphasizes on sharing common goals and business objectives. In this type of culture, the employees are motivated to work as teams. Person culture: The Company in which people working there do not bother about whether the objectives or purposes of the organization are met or not and primarily and only their personal desires are their focal points possesses a person culture. When there is nothing that the employees have to expect any kind of betterment working hard for the company, this type of culture takes place in the business organization. Employees just come to the company for their salary and accomplishing their personal interest. Role culture: Organization possessing this type of culture where the employees are given the right combination of duties and authority aligning with their job position in the organization and basing on their qualifications and experience as well (Management Theory of Charles Handy, 2011). Employees within this type of culture are empowered with the authority given to them for choosing their own ways to solve any issue or accomplishing any task as well. Comparison between Hofstedes and Handys models of culture The two models of organizational culture describe two issue relating to the culture of a particular work environment or company. The first one provides six types of dimensions on which the nature of culture is understood but the later one describes types of culture that a company might possess either of them. The objective of these two models are also different. For example, the Hofstedes model is used to understand the culture of a particular organization through analyzing six set of attributes discussed in the previous task. But, Handys model of culture is used for knowing why an employee is working within a particular business organization as highlighted by (Types of Organizational Culture, 2016). Also, according to Hofstede a culture can be measured positive or negative analyzing the score in the six indices accomplished by the particular business organization as cited by (Hofstede, Hofstede, Minkov, 2010). But, Handys model of culture analyzes which type of culture does the business organization specifically possessing at present. We have selected a single issue- enhancing gender balance in Nestle to apply any of the cultural model within the Organizational culture of Nestle to overcome the challenges of confronting the issue. The Hofstedes model of culture doesnt involve any dimension relating to gender equality in the workplace environment where the Handys model of culture presents the role culture types which only focuses on qualification and education of the employee beyond gender disparity. So, we will utilize the Handys model of culture and apply this on the issue facing by Nestle at present. According to Charles Handy, there are four types of cultures from which any one of these types of culture can be seen in a particular business organization. Among these four types of culture described in the previous part of this report such as power, role, task and person culture, we are to use the role culture in case of Nestle. Because, we are responding to the issue of enhancement of gender balance within Nestle and we will emphasize on this type of culture to give some recommendations that the company might follow to adopt in order to confront the issue as well. The role culture as provided by Handy is focused on the empowerment of the employees working in the business organization (NCSL Modular Curriculum, 2016). As Nestle is directed toward improving its working environment balancing the role and power of the workforce through enhancing the balance in gender. Male as well as female employees are to be given equal opportunities and this is to be ensured for balancing in gender in Nestle and in any organization as well. The main objective under the issue of enhancing gender balance in the company is to increase the number of female in the higher or managerial positions f he company. This needs to be given the female workers or employee equal opportunities to grow and also to encourage and motivate them to work closely with the male employees so that the synergic calculation of the effort by both genders equals to more than the sum of them. The role culture needs to be adopted by Nestle because, this culture imposes equal rights, responsibiti es, power to all the employees according to their qualification and skill as well ass according to their job position without considering which gender they possess. So, adopting such practices and the role culture in the business organization will support Nestle to accomplish its objective of enhancing balance in gender. Nestle should implement the role culture that will ensure the empowerment with right combination of authority and responsibility of all the employees and eliminating the gender disparity within the business organization. Organizational culture needs to be set up according to its shared objectives and values so that the employees can be managed within the controlled organizational environment toward organizational goals acheieving. Through implementing such a shared culture will improve business processes for enhancing of opportunities for the betterment of the employees as well company. References       About us. (2016). Nestle.com. Retrieved 9 August 2016, from http://www.nestle.com/aboutus Al Mehairi, H. Zakaria, N. (2014). Understanding Organizational Culture for Effective Knowledge Sharing Behaviors in the Workplace. Organizational Cultures: An International Journal, 13(3), 33-52. http://dx.doi.org/10.18848/2327-8013/cgp/v13i03/59257 At a glance. (2016). Nestle.com. Retrieved 9 August 2016, from http://www.nestle.com/aboutus/overview Bailey, J. (2007). Profile on Charles Handy. Engineering Management, 17(1), 44-46. http://dx.doi.org/10.1049/em:20070115 Charles Handy. (2009). The Economist. Retrieved 10 August 2016, from http://www.economist.com/node/13847396 Charles Handy Model of Organization Culture. (2016). Managementstudyguide.com. Retrieved 10 August 2016, from http://www.managementstudyguide.com/charles-handy-model.htm CRAINER, S. (2010). PROFILE: CHARLES HANDY. Business Strategy Review, 21(2), 86-88. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8616.2010.00671.x Creating Shared Value. (2016). Nestle.com. Retrieved 10 August 2016, from http://www.nestle.com/csv Geert Hofstede. (2016). Geert-hofstede.com. Retrieved 10 August 2016, from https://www.geert-hofstede.com/ Hofstede, G. (2009). Organising for cultural diversity. European Management Journal, 7(4), 390-397. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0263-2373(89)90075-3 Hofstede, G., Hofstede, G., Minkov, M. (2010). Cultures and organizations. New York: McGraw-Hill. Hofstede, G., Pedersen, P., Hofstede, G. (2012). Exploring culture. Yarmouth, Me.: Intercultural Press. Management Theory of Charles Handy. (2011). Business.com. Retrieved 10 August 2016, from http://www.business.com/management/management-theory-of-charles-handy/ NCSL Modular Curriculum. (2016). Nationalcollege.org.uk. Retrieved 10 August 2016, from https://www.nationalcollege.org.uk/transfer/open/dsbm-phase-4-module-2-leading-and-managing-change/culture-and-change/organisational-culture.html Organisational Culture Geert Hofstede. (2016). Geert-hofstede.com. Retrieved 10 August 2016, from https://www.geert-hofstede.com/organisational-culture.html Performance culture. (2016). Nestle.com. Retrieved 9 August 2016, from http://www.nestle.com/jobs/your-career-at-nestle/performance-culture Research Geert Hofstede. (2016). Geert-hofstede.com. Retrieved 10 August 2016, from https://www.geert-hofstede.com/research.html Types of Organizational Culture. (2016). Boundless. Retrieved from https://www.boundless.com/management/textbooks/boundless-management-textbook/organizational-culture-and-innovation-4/culture-33/types-of-organizational-culture-187-3936/   

The Downside to Land Use and Urban Development Essay example -- Enviro

The Downside to Land Use and Urban Development    Excessive land use and urban development are a problem, because it causes pollution and it robs animals of their homes.   When man extends his boundaries into nature, nature has no choice but to go somewhere else.   Expansion and population are the cause of this environmental problem.   I propose to set a standard for land development for every city.   In that I also propose that each city should impose a set number of persons to live in that city.   Each city must impose stricter guidelines for waste management.   Finally I propose that the city set limits for development, and expansion. Land development causes danger to the environment by polluting the air and disrupting geological and animal status.   Air pollution is a big problem with urban life.   Large cities have the characteristic of having polluted skies.   The Environmental Protection Agency passed an act, through legislation, called the Clean Air Act.   The CAA set standards for all cities (Environmental Politics and Policies, 195).   Some of these cities that do not meet such standards include Los Angels, New York, Chicago, Milwaukee, Baltimore, and Houston.   These limits are called National Ambient Air Quality Standards (189).   The NAAQS sets a limit on the amount of Carbon Dioxide, Hydrocarbons, Air born Particulates, nitrogenoxides, lead, and sulfur oxides, and Ozone in the cities air.   Such standards apply for 7 (192).   The definition for Ozone: A strong oxidizing agent with disinfecting properties similar to chlorine; also used in odor control and sludge processing (Environmenta l Engineering, 219).   Ozone is present in the high atmosphere, but at lower levels can be one of the most harmful gases on Earth (Our Poison... ...constantly influenced by their social ruling.   We don’t have except this way of living, there needs to be a change.   We need to prepare for the future, and save what we still have.   We have to, before it’s all gone.            Works Cited 1.) Beyond the numbers; Edited by Laurie Ann Mazur Published by Island Press, Washington DC; 1994 2.) Environmental Politics and Policy; Written by Walter A. Rosenbaum Published by Congressional Quarterly; 1998 3.) Our poisoned Sky; Written by Edward F. Dolan Published by Cobblehill books; 1991 4.) Endangered Environments; Written by James Colgney Published by Apple Tree Inc.; 1994 5.) Dennis Plunkett (American Reality, Phoenix Az) Interviewed: 11-14-98   6.)U.S. Census Bureau (WWW.census.gov/main/www/popclock.html)   7.)Q and A’s About Land Fills (WWW.awma.org/awma/educate/outreach/landfill.html)   

How many wolves are too many? :: essays research papers fc

  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In 1922 the federal government passed a law that allowed wolves in Yellowstone National Park to be hunted. In just four years later the last wolf was hunted. In 1995, the gray wolf was reintroduced to the park. The government started off by introducing 31 wolves in the Montana and Wyoming parts of the park. Now 116 wolves now live and more then 75 pups.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The controversy surrounding the reintroduction of the wolves are many from both sides. Some local farmers are against it because some wolves hunt their animals. However, if the farmers can prove their animal was attacked by a wolf, then the government would reimburse them for the animals value. Another problem is that some taxpayers are against the reintroduction because it cost them money to get the wolves back into the park. Another issue for taxpayers is that they have to pay for the damage the wolves do to the farmer’s animals.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The pro for the reintroduction is the ecosystem is healthier. With the reintroduction, the wolf hunts sick deer and elk. The weak are sorted out and the strong survive. The same goes for the wolves. The wolves that are injured or have diseased cannot survive. When they die scavengers get to eat their meat, which contributes to the ecosystem.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Another pro is more people come to Yellowstone National Park to see the wolves since they were extinct for more then 30 years. According to the National Parks Conservation Association, an average of 15,000 people see a wolf in Yellowstone a year. Douglas Smith, who is doing research about the wolves, recording a wolf sighting for 135 straight days from the park roads.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   In other parks, the federal recovery program is going well. At Isle Royale National Park in Michigan, wolf’s population reached 29, which is the maximum number to survive in the ecosystem. Those 29 wolves can easily live sustainable off the 210 square miles of land. The state of Minnesota has more then 2,500 wolves living and roaming the lands.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  There are many controversies surrounding the wolf protection policy. From the view of the farmers who loss there live stock, I understand why they would not want the wolves reintroduced to Yellowstone National Park or any place else. The problem I have with it is how does the government find market value for a cow? Is it a flat rate? Many questions surround the value of a cow or any other livestock.

English Macbeth :: essays research papers

To What Extent is Macbeth pushed into killing king Duncan? Numerous people and factors push Macbeth into killing the king. The main factors are:  Lady Macbeth  The Witches and Fate  King Duncan  Banquo  Himself (Macbeth) I start with probably the most influential character upon Macbeth, his wife, Lady Macbeth. Lady Macbeth believes what the witches have said and therefore believes that she will become the queen. ‘Have I thought good to deliver thee’ She obviously has a great ambition and will do almost anything to fulfil her ambition. This shows a great evilness in her ‘And dashed the brains out’ She is also reluctant to accept Macbeths original thought of leaving the idea alone ‘What beast was’t then that made you break this enterprise to me’ She appears supremely confident about murdering Duncan even though Macbeth is not which also shows of her great ambition to succeed and become queen of Scotland. ‘We Fail? … But screw your courage… and we’ll not fail’ Lady Macbeth plans the murder from a very early stage even when Macbeth is unsure of what he is to do ‘When Duncan is asleep… his spongy officers, who shall bear the guilt of our great quell? Overall Lady Macbeths ambition, confidence and naivete is perhaps the major factor in pushing Macbeth into the murder of Duncan. She does not think of the consequences of the murder so she is 100% behind Macbeth killing Macbeth, which makes it difficult for Macbeth to go against her. Another factor is Banquo. The fact that Banquo knows of what the ‘imperfect speakers’ said is a major factor pushing Macbeth away from killing the King. If the King were to be murdered Banquo would be suspicious and would most likely suspect Macbeth of doing the evil deed of killing the king. This would obviously put Macbeth off. Another factor is that of the Witches. Without them Macbeth would most likely not think twice about killing the king. ‘All hail Macbeth, that shalt be king thereafter’ If someone were to just tell him this he would most likely not believe it but it was the fact that the witches had forecasted that he would be Thane of Cawdor and Thane of Glamis correctly. The witches forced him to think about being king but at first he expected to be made king without doing anything for it but he then realises there is only one way, to kill the king. This encounter with the witches has put him in two minds.

Frank Lloyd Wright

She has written several other books on American architecture Including On Architecture: Collected Reflections on a Century of Change and The unreal America: Architecture and Illusion. Her biography on Frank Lloyd Wright is both informative and entertaining; she not only reveals the long and harrowing Journey and the victories and defeats of the rebellious and egotistical architect, but also gives a clear view at the times in which he was most active and the ways in which the country and the world were reacting to his architecture while adapting with everything from changing architectural tastes and styles to economic depressions and the WorldWars. Beginning with his birth and childhood in Wisconsin all the way to his latter days of work and death in Arizona, Hustle details the journey and evolution of his legacy and the tragedies that failed to hinder his art in coherent chronological fashion. Hustle begins the first chapters of the biography with the birth of Frank Lloyd Wright and his beginnings as a child in Wisconsin. Hustle also Introduces the fact that Wright manipulated some details of his personal information throughout life to suit his ego and create his own elegantly presented persona, beginning with his birthday.Born truly in 1867, Wright later changed his birth date to 1869 which â€Å"made a case for a precocious talent with an impressively youthful, early success in Chicago in the 1 sass,† and more Importantly to Wright it â€Å"kept him shy of the dreaded 90-mark during his brilliant late work in the asses† (Hustle 1). In these acts of self- benefit, Hustle revealed the aesthetically egotistical side of Wright that I most certainly never realized was an active force in his life. From his birth, Wright was pampered and directed by his mother, Anna, who believed him to be destined for greatness. On conception, she decided that Frank would be a great architect one day and she was going to do everything in her power to help and guide hi m in that path, not only for his own benefit but for hers as well. She thought particular crib all to influence the newly born Wright towards a path of architectural nirvana. â€Å"He would deliver her from the despair and hardship of her life, make up for her thwarted ambitions; they would have a golden future together† (Hustle 7).Hustle describes Wright's childhood as a bittersweet mixture of hard labor on his uncles farm and alienation from his father mixed with glorious Sunday mornings at he Lloyd Jones family Unitarian chapel followed up by emotionally restorative nights spent singing songs while his father played piano. She illuminates how even though he was a small and weakly child, he learned to â€Å"pile tired on tired† (Hustle 14) working on his uncle's farm and how that strength and stamina of mind and body stayed with Wright even up to the final days of his career which was alive and well until his death.Hustle then begins to describe the evolution of Wrig ht's Journey to becoming an apprentice architect. He was given his first opportunity at a youthful age to assist in he design and construction of a family chapel and even added a windmill of his own design later which stood the test of time and physical stress against the disbelief of some in his family. Through his early life in the rolling hills of the scenic Helena Valley, Wisconsin, Wright planted the seeds of his ideas and passion for â€Å"organic architecture† (Hustle 27) which would be the basis of his unique art in his future works.Organic architecture makes the lay of land, its environmental atmosphere, and the nature of the construction materials the combined generators of the design f the building. His 1935 masterpiece, Billingsgate, built for Edgar Kaufmann over a waterfall is a perfect example of the mix between nature and architecture that makes it uniquely organic and uniquely Wright. Hustle does an amazing Job at keeping all of Wright's advancements in chrono logical order and in a way that is easy to understand how he built his way up to the famous architect that he is.Through his confidence given to him by his mother, Wright began to understand that he was destined for more than an ordinary mortal life because he had â€Å"God-given creativity' (Hustle 33). When Wright was twenty years of age, he moved to the booming cultural epicenter that was Chicago of the asses. He applied to many different architectural firms but only to the prestigious ones which he believed worthy of his gifts and unique abilities; ultimately reputation and image would be the factors Wright would take into account when choosing a firm to work for.He began with Joseph Lyman Sessile, moved on to Beers, Clay, and Dutton, went back to Sessile, and then found his first nest egg of architectural growth and education with Louis Sullivan and Dammar Adler of the Adler and Sullivan firm. Hustle describes Wright as being able to absorb and retain every bit of useful infor mation. He would act as a sponge to Louis Sullivan, soaking up every ounce of the architectural knowledge he found interesting or worthy and committing it to memory. Although you would think that Wright would credit Sullivan for his influence, Hustle defines Wright as notoriously self-centered and arrogant.He would never admit that his ideas or passions for architecture had been influenced by any other human or any culture. His ego made him believe that his forms of architecture were completely ewe and unheard of; it was truly Just a concoction of every bit of influence he had every received through both education and observation Just mixed and manifested biography, Hustle tells how Wright went from sponge-like apprentice to fully accredited and renowned architectural celebrity. As his experience and popularity grew, Wright was approached by clients seeking his work apart from Sullivan influence and he began â€Å"moonlighting† (Hustle 70).With a newly wedded wife and childre n on the way, Wright needed more money to support them and his notorious self-indulgence into Japanese prints and fine clothing. Moonlight work, which is working on secret drafts without company permission and reaping all the profit, was forbidden in his contract with Adler and Sullivan and he was eventually found out and immediately fired. The blow to Sullivan was disastrous and the master and apprentice lost touch for years. When he had established himself well enough in the Chicago architectural scene, Wright began taking on employees as draftsman in his home-studio in the Oak Park suburb of Chicago.His Prairie House design and the Larking Administration Building were two of his greatest creations during this period. Wright was Just setting himself up with a good starting out career when Hustle delivers arguably the most controversial and disliked decision that Wright ever made: with children disturbing his concentration and the stresses of marriage and bills weighed together, Wr ight went through a mental breakdown and â€Å"in the fall of 1909, he left, abruptly cutting all ties.He abandoned a wife and six children and closed his practice, leaving debts and unfinished projects behind† (Hustle 106). Hustle describes how the newspapers and tabloids had a field day with reproving Wright's deplorable actions. He embarked on a two year Journey to Europe with his mistress Amah Cheney. While she worked as a translator in Germany, Wright worked in Florence with his son Lloyd and draftsman Taylor Woolly observing the Italian and Germanic architecture.Upon moving back to the United States, his mother Anna purchased the land in Wisconsin that would soon be the birthplace of his completely tailored and architecturally unique home, Totalities. â€Å"Wright would survive tragedy and disasters there, the murder of a lover and her children, desperate financial crises, and three destructive fires, rebuilding each time† (Hustle 34) from the ashes f the previou s. Shortly after the first Totalities was built, Amah and her children from her previous marriage were brutally murdered and Totalities was burnt to the ground.Accounts given by survivors of the disaster, gardeners and other Totalities workman, explained that the cook had some dispute with Amah and went ballistic. It took Wright several years, a new and blessedly time-consuming project, a new female companion, and Totalities II to bring him back out from a depressed slump. Wright gained instant international success upon the completion of the Imperial Hotel in Tokyo, Japan. In 1923, the hotel was completed and was one of the only structures that survived the great Kant Earthquake that struck Japan that same year.